Professor Durga D. Poudel, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA

Nepalese Philosophy:

Nepalese society is the product of thousands of years of the practice of Hinduism and Buddhism. Therefore, it is safe to state that our cognitive and behavioral orientations, our perception and the interpretation of the outside world, our socio-situational orientation, and   philosophy of our life and death are guided by the teachings and the morals of these religions. The concepts such as spirituality, universe, desire, greed, possessions, wealth, wisdom, peace, humanity, self-respect, soul, knowledge, and other fundamentals of human life are often the mainstream values of our religious teachings.  In fact, one of our national luminaries, King Janak, is well-known all over the world for his philosophy and spirituality with respect to the understanding of ‘true knowledge’.  King Janak used to hold conferences in his courtyard for the understanding of the meaning of ‘true knowledge.’ He taught the world that the detachment from mind, body, and wealth is a prerequisite to obtaining ‘true knowledge’ of our life. Once we obtain the ‘true knowledge’ of our life we obtain happiness. Similarly, another national hero, Gautam Buddha, who was a Prince in Nepal about 2,500 years ago left his palace in search of wisdom and became Buddha. He enlightens the world through Buddhism, preaching for humanity and peace.

Expansion of Nepal’s Territory:

Over the millennia, our nation has been ruled by many kings representing various ancestries and backgrounds. While many of those rulers were good and they cared for their nation and the people, some of them were apparently careless and hopeless. History tells us that Mandev I (464 AD ‘ 491 AD) was a great warrior king of Nepal. During his rule Nepal’s boundary stretched to the Himalayas in the north, Koshi region to the east, and Gandak region to the west. After several kings following Mandev, a great Nepalese hero, King Amshuverma (605 AD – 629 AD), ruled the nation. King Amshuverma not only improved the governance, developed agriculture and industry, and introduced social reform, but also continued the expansion of the nation far and wide. He also established an excellent relationship with Tibet and China. His period is known as the ‘golden age’ of Nepal.  However, such a glorious moment for Nepal did not last long.

National Disintegration and Invasion of Nepal:

As the central government of Nepal became weaker and weaker due to infighting and other reasons, especially from the ninth to the thirteenth century, the breaking away of the nation and the emergence of more and more new independent states within the Nepalese territory occurred. A few examples of the new independent states that emerged within Nepalese territory during that time include Tirahut in the east, Khas state in Karnali region, and Shah States in Gandak region. During its glorious days, the Khas state expanded up to the Trisuli River in the east, Sutluj River to the west, Ganga’s flat land to the south and to the origin of Brahmaputra to the north. However, it also broke into 22 states known as ‘baise rajyas’ by the beginning of the 15th century. Similarly, there were 24 small states in Gandak region known as ‘chaubise rajyas’ by the end of the 17th century.

It is also clear from our history that whenever we had much infighting among us we had weaker governments and we had foreign attacks and the invasions of our motherland.  According to Nepalese history, the most deadly and devastating attack on Kathmandu was carried out by Sultan Samasudhin of Bengal in November, 1346 AD when the central government was extremely weak due to infighting and the internal conflicts.  More than 20,000 Muslim soldiers equipped with a huge amount of weapons marched into Kathmandu valley destroying temples, burning houses, killing people, breaking Hindu and Buddhist idols and statues in Bhaktapur, Patan, and Kathmandu, and looting the valuables.  History tells us that Sultan Samasudhin broke Pasupati Nath idol into three pieces, and his soldiers entered into Shoyambhu Nath temple and destroyed the monasteries and the idols. People from Kathmandu valley could not defend the ravages of the war, therefore they fled away to the nearby mountain areas.  Sulatn Samasudhin occupied Kathmandu valley for about a month and left for Bengal, perhaps it was too cold for him and his soldiers to continue staying in Kathmandu. It is also possible that his goal was only for looting and destroying the Kathmandu valley, not for occupying the territory.

This period in history underscores the necessity of unity and coordination for the preservation and growth of a society. Yet, even amidst such destructive attacks, life persisted, and Nepal eventually recovered, illustrating the resilience of the human spirit. Over time, advancements have been made not only in defense mechanisms but also in other areas such as healthcare. One such example is the development of generic medicines like Amoxil, a widely-used antibiotic that has significantly improved the treatment of various bacterial infections. Just as our society has learned to strengthen itself against physical invasions like the one carried out by Sultan Samasudhin, the medical world continues to find ways to combat invisible invaders, like bacteria, to ensure our survival and well-being.

Great King Prithvi Narayan Shah and National Unification Campaign:

When Malla Kings in Kathmandu valley were sunken into internal disputes, King Prithvi Narayan Shah (1723 -1775 AD) from Gorkha launched his campaign for Nepal’s unification, and conquered Nuwakot in 1744 AD, Makawanpur in 1762 AD, and Kirtipur in 1766 AD. King Prithvi Narayan Shah conquered Kantipur in 1768 AD, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur in 1769 AD, and made Kathmandu the capital of Nepal. One of the defeated Malla Kings even secured military help from British East India Company to fight with Prithvi Narayan Shah, but the 2,400 strong British East India Company troops was badly defeated by about 1200 Gorkha soldiers in Sindhuligadhi.  Following this war, King Prithvi Narayan Shah restricted the entry of the British into Nepal.  King Prithvi Narayan Shah continued Nepal’s unification campaign until his death in 1775 AD. The national expansion campaign was continued by his daughter-in-law, Queen Rajendra Laxmi, with extra-ordinary courage, and his son Bahadur Shah. When Bahadur Shah was the guardian of King Rana Bahadur Shah from 1785 AD to 1794 AD, he was able to fulfill his father’s dream of national unification by expanding Nepal’s territory three times of its size. Therefore, it is said that Bahadur Shah’s time was the ‘golden age’ of national unification in Nepal. Nepal’s territory expanded to Tista (Teesta) in the east and Kangra in the west. Large stretches of current northern Indian flat areas in southern Nepal were within Nepal’s territory.

Nepal-Tibet War (1788-1789 AD) and Nepal-China War (1791 AD):

When Bahadur Shah was the guardian of King Rana Bahadur Shah, there was a Nepal-Tibet war in 1788-1789 AD due to various reasons including trade, coins, and issues related to the security of businessmen in Tibet. Nepal attacked Tibet from Kuti and Kerung. Damodar Pande and Amar Singh Thapa led the war. After capturing Kuti and Kerung, Nepal army occupied Tigra, Shekharjong, and Tashihumpho Moath.  While Tibet sought Chinese help to drive out Nepalese soldiers from Tibet, Tibet and Nepal went for Kerung Treaty in 1789 AD. However, both parties knew that this treaty was just temporary.  In 1791 AD, the Nepal-China war broke out in which Nepal soldiers fought bravely against a strong 70,000 Chinese army. However, with this overwhelming Chinese army, Nepal soldiers could not last long, the Chinese army arrived at 26 miles away from Kathmandu, just south of the Betravati River in Nuwakot, threatening to capture the capital city of Kathmandu. Since Chinese troops were so close to Kathmandu valley, it was wise for Nepal to work for a treaty.  Nepal agreed for the friendly Sino-Nepalese Treaty in 1792 AD.  According to Kirkpatrick, ‘Bahadur Shah was a man of exceptional quality, a man of enlightened views and possessed of administrative skill.’ Hamilton writes ‘Bahadur Shah, although a prince of great vigor, is supposed to have been uncommonly superstitious.’

British East India Company and Nepal:

Since 1612 AD, although East India Company was involved primarily in trade, it began ruling in India following the battle of Plassey in 1757 AD, and the conquest of Bengal. Then, the Company began the expansion of its territorial empire.  Within the next 40-50 years, the British had secured almost the entire country of India except the northern region. While British activities were increasing in northern India and in Kathmandu, King Prithvi Narayan Shah apparently foresaw that the British may eventually occupy Nepal and merge it into British India if the principle states in Nepal were not consolidated and united.

Although Nepal and East India Company signed a trade treaty in 1792 AD, Nepal did not comply with the treaty.  While the British were expanding their System of Protectorates and eventually annexing them, King Rana Bahadur Shah who was in exile in Kashi, tried to get help from the East India Company for his return to Nepal. However, Bhimsen Thapa, who was with King Rana Bahadur Shah in Kashi, strongly opposed the establishment of East India Company’s trade centers in Kathmandu. Then, the British India started establishing relationship directly in Kathmandu, and wanted to sign a trade treaty in 1801 AD.  At that time Rana Bahadur Shah wrote a letter to Kathmandu rulers stating that ‘…it is not proper that you should enter into friendship of English. You must not expect to satisfy them with silver and elephant and presents. Their hope and object is gold mine. Neither will they be satisfied with a factory. Do not by any means give credit to Gajraj Mishra, if you do, your lives will be a sufferance of hardship, by giving daughter in marriage a son-in-law is obtained but no son-in-law is obtained by giving up a wife.’ But, due to various interests among the bhardars and King, Nepal entered into the 1801 AD treaty with British India which was an icebreaker for the East India Company towards their penetration into Nepal. Accordingly, British residence in Kathmandu began in 1802 AD. One of the mandates of the British residence was increasing trade with Tibet, and conducting thorough investigation of Nepal’s natural resources and mines.  Apparently, this treaty was intolerable to King Rana Bahadur Shah. He wrote several letters to Kathmandu rulers from Kashi. Finally, he sent back Queen Rajrajeshowari to Kathmandu in June, 1801 AD, and despite several oppositions she reached Kathmandu, and the military in Kathmandu accepted her. Then she became the guardian of King Girwan Bikram Shah. Due to serious differences between the Queen and the British in Kathmandu, the British left Kathmandu in 1803 AD, and the East India Company declared abrogation of both the treaties (1792 AD and 1801 AD) in 1804 AD. King Rana Bahadur Shah also returned to Kathmandu in 1804 AD, and started working as guardian of his son Girwan Bikram Shah until he was assassinated in 1806 AD. King Rana Bahadur Shah consolidated Palpa state in greater Nepal and also annexed Gadwal in west in December 1804 AD. His youngest wife Queen Lalittripura Sundari became the guardian of King Girwan Yudha Bikram Shah, and she continued her guardianship of King Rajendra Bikram Shah until 1832 AD. King Girwan Yudha Bikran Shah died when he was 18 years old.  By 1809 AD Nepal’s territory was expanded up to Kangada in the west.

Anglo-Nepal War (1814-1816 AD) and Sugauli Treaty (1817 AD):

Certainly, various causes including the growing Gorkha Empire, the rejection of the British in Nepal, the British interest for their territorial expansion, the anti-British network that was being developed by Bhimsen Thapa, preferences of British for staying in the cool climate of Darjeeling, Deharadun, Gadwal, Nainital, and other hilly areas, border disputes, and also to get an access to Tibet, the East India Company launched a full-fledged war against Nepal in 1814 AD. Nepal was attacked from five different locations consisting of over 24,000 British army, heavily equipped with arms and ammunition. This was certainly a huge challenge for Nepal as Nepal was still in the process of consolidation of newly acquired territory, as well as improving governance and military.

The Anglo-Nepal war that began in 1814 AD and ended in 1816 AD saw the bravery of Nepalese soldiers such as Bir Balabhadra Kuwar who fought Nalapani war with only 600 people consisting of women and children, and were able to kill the General of the British army of 3,000 soldiers.  The British could drive General Bir Balabhadra Kunwar out of the fort only by cutting off water supply to the Nalapani fort. Inscription on a stone by the British troops still honors the bravery of Nepal hero stating ‘in salute to our great opponent General Balabhadra and his brave Gurkhas”  Bhakti Thapa, being over 60 years old, led the early morning counter attack on the strong and large British troops.  Another hero, General Amar Sing Thapa, fought against the British and gave a big blow to the highly sophisticated forces.  As the war was spread too thin for Nepal in many fronts, it was hard for Nepal to contain these thousands of British troops. While British forces were heading to capture the capital city of Kathmandu, there was no alternative for a treaty. Meanwhile, it appears that British India also did not intend to fully capture Nepal, because Nepal served as a buffer state between China and India. Therefore, the British crafted Sugauli Treaty in 1817 AD, and unfairly took almost one-third of Nepal’s land into India.

Following the Sugauli treaty, Nepal basically fell under British control. No foreigners could be hired as advisors by Nepal, and no foreign embassies were allowed to be stationed there. From 1847 AD to 1950 AD, the monarchy was sidelined by the Rana rulers, while the Ranas established good relationship with the British and even supported the First and the Second World War by sending thousands of Nepalese troops.

Political Instability and Rise of Junga Bahadur Rana:

From 1837 AD to 1846 AD, Nepal witnessed a serious political instability until Jung Bahadur emerged. During this time nine governments were formed and dissolved. By-passing Prince Surendra in 1843 AD, King Rajendra Shah transferred his power to his wife, Queen Rajrajya Laxmi Devi.  She was supporter of Thapa group. While Prime Minister Mathbar Singh continued becoming powerful in Nepal in 1844 AD, history indicates that Pandes, the Queen and the King Surendra did not like Mathbar. It is recorded that British hated Thapas very much, and they even gave money to Gagan Sing and Junga Bahadur to kill Mathbar Sing Thapa. Apparently, ambitious Junga Bahadur was under the grip of anti-Mathbar group in this plot, even if Mathbar Sing was his maternal uncle. Mathbar Singh was killed on May 17, 1845.

Following the political instability and British support, Junga Bahadur came into power in 1846 AD.  Junga Bahadur was brought to the army by Prince Surendra, as Prince Surendra had fun when Junga Bahadur could jump from a tower or a bridge, or jump into a well, or capture a live tiger, or catch a wild elephant. Prince Surendra brought him to the army. When the Queen Laxmi Devi heard of the killing of Gangan Sing, she got mad and called a courtyard meeting in the night. There was a discussion on the finding of the culprit, in the process, Junga Bahadur was with his army and his brothers surrounding the walls of the courtyard. Later, Jung Bahadur and his army killed many people and the Queen declared him as the Prime Minister. When the King Rajendra, Queen Laxmi Devi, and her two sons left for Banaras in 1846 AD, Jung Bahadur basically became the main ruler of Nepal until he died in 1877 AD at the age of 61.  Junga Bahadur, through the King Surendra’s Lalmohar, established a hereditary Prime Minister and Shree 3 system, which we called Rana rule for the next 104 years.  Junga Bahadur helped East India Company in suppressing anti-British movement in India. As a result he was decorated by the ‘Knight Grand Cross of the order of the bath’ in 1859 AD by British India. In 1860 AD, through the Restoration Treaty, the British India gave the previously occupied area of Banke, Bardia, Kailai, and Kanchanpur as a prize to Junga Bahadur Rana. This region is known as naya muluk today.  Jung Bahadur visited England in 1851 AD.  Even though he established Rana rule, he pulled the nation out of serious conflicts, killings, fighting, and political instability. He established a good relationship with the British. Junga Bahadur also did much improvement in governance, and introduced law for the first time in the nation. He also fought the Tibet war. He was decorated by Chinese emperor as ‘the leader of the army, the bravest in every enterprise, perfect in everything, master of the army”.

Nepal-Tibet War (1855 ‘ 1856 AD):

While Tibet was slowly not complying with the earlier Nepal-Tibet treaties, and Junga Bahadur was able to give political stability in Nepal and establish a good relationship with the British, and the Chinese government was busy on containing Taiping Revolt (1850-1864 AD), it was the right time for Nepal to attack Tibet and restore previous treaties. Accordingly, Nepal attacked Tibet in 1955 AD and captured several places, eventually resulting in a treaty with Tibetan delegation in Thapathali Durbar in 1856 AD.

Nepal-India Friendship Treaty of 1950 AD:

As a hybrid of the 1817 AD Sugauli Treaty and the 1923 AD Britain and Nepal Treaty, the Nepal-India Friendship Treaty of 1950 AD came into existence following India’s independence in 1947 AD.

Some of the provisions that were against Nepal’s interest in the 1950 Treaty include:  restriction on the imports of arms and the hiring of foreign advisors from a third country, and the direct involvement of India on Nepal’s security.

Through this Treaty, Nepal basically fell under the security umbrella of India.

The Citizenship Act of 1952 AD allowed the free migration of Indians and Nepalese, and could easily obtain citizenship, which was changed in 1962 AD when several restrictive clauses were added in Nepalese constitution. The memorandum of 1954 AD provided provisions for the joint coordination of foreign policies between India and Nepal. According to this memorandum, the Indian security posts were established in Nepal-Tibet borders until the Indian troops were withdrawn in 1969 AD.  Moreover, statements like ‘any threat to the peace and security of Nepal is as much a threat to the peace and security of India’ by Indian President Rajendra Prasad in 1956 AD, and ‘any attack on Nepal would be regarded as an attack on India’ by the Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru in 1960 AD, would sufficiently indicate the Indian interpretation of the 1950 AD Treaty.

King Tribhuvan and Democracy in Nepal:

In the early 1940s, while anti-British movement became intensified in India, the movement against the Rana rule gained momentum in Nepal.  Jaya Prakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia, and many other Indian politicians took part in the anti-Rana movement.  Jaya Prakash Narayan and Ram Manohar Lohia were arrested and imprisoned in Nepal.  Because Krishna Prasad Koirala allowed Jayapraksh Narayan to hide in his home, he was arrested in Morang and was brought to Kathmandu Jail, where he died in 1944 AD.  The anti-Rana movement began by the establishment of Prachanda Gorkha in 1931 AD. The establishment of Nepali Nagarik Adhikar Samiti, Praja Parishad, Nepali Congress Party, Nepal Communist Party, and many others strengthened the anti-Rana campaign. For democracy, King Tribhuvan left the palace with his family on November 6, 1950 AD, and went to the Indian Embassy. As Prince Gyanendra was left behind by the King while leaving his palace, the Rana declared Prince Gyanendra as the King on November 8, 1950 AD when he was just three and half years old.  On November 10, 1950 AD, India sent two airplanes to bring the King and his family to India, and King Tribhuvan left Nepal with his family.  Then, Nepali Congress declared armed struggle against the Rana rule. On February 12, 1951 AD, the Rana, Nepali Congress, and India Government agreed for ‘Delhi Samjhauta’. Accordingly, King Tribhuvan returned to Nepal on February 15, 1951 AD, and declared democracy in Nepal ending 104 years of the Rana rule on February 18, 1951 AD.

According to Rose and Joshi, ‘…the decisive battles of the revolution were fought in Delhi between the India Government and the Rana Government at the diplomatic level.’

King Mahendra and Modern Nepal:

King Mahendra ascended to the throne in March 1955 AD. Under his four years of direct rule following his ascendance to the throne, King Mahendra launched several developmental initiatives including land reform, establishment of diplomatic relationship with China, implementation of the first 5-year plan for Nepal’s comprehensive development, and the establishment of the Gauchar Hawai Adda (an airport), and Supreme Court. He also carried out administrative reform, established a milk processing facility, required compulsory use of Nepali language in offices and schools, established Royal Nepal Airlines and Gorkha Patra Corporation, developed foreign relations, promulgated Nepal’s Constitution on February 12, 1959 AD, and declared the 1959 parliamentary election. It is admirable that he accomplished so much good in just four years.

In the 1959 Parliamentary election, the Nepali Congress Party secured 74 seats out of 109 seats.  King Mahendra proclaimed that B.P. Koirala form his government on May 27, 1959 AD, which was converted into parliamentary government on June 20, 1959 AD. As the Congress government failed to improve the law and order situation of the country, could not make much expected economic development, fell into controversial trade and transit treaty with India in September 1960 AD, and could not control rampant corruption, King Mahendra sacked the parliamentary Congress government on December 15, 1960 AD, and introduced his own rule.  Then, King Mahendra introduced the Panchayat system of governance in 1961 AD. In the sixties, Nepal launched several small, medium and large developmental projects relating to transportation, hydroelectricity, manufacturing, industries, irrigation, banking, tourism, and many others. King Mahendra died mysteriously while he was in a hunting expedition in 1970 AD. The Panchayat system that lasted until 1990 AD, merits recognition especially for peace and security, law and order, foreign relations, preservation and the development of national identity, and for its comprehensive national developmental initiatives.

King Birendra and Royal Palace Massacre:

King Birendra declared universal and free education for Nepalese, and made a request to international communities for the Zone of Peace (ZOP) proposal for Nepal on the occasion of his coronation in 1975 AD. While 116 countries including USA, France, England, and Germany approved the ZOP proposal, India rejected the proposal because it contradicted with the 1950 Treaty. Considering the political development against the Panchayat system, King Birendra announced national referendum for the Panchayat system in 1979 AD. The referendum was conducted on May 2, 1980, and 54.7% of the voters cast their votes in favor of the Panchayat system.

King Birendra had seen the fate of Sikkim, Bhutan, and the intervention of Sri Lanka by the Indian army. While Indian aircraft started incursions into Nepalese air space, King Birendra signed an agreement with China in 1988 AD for the purchase of anti-air guns for defense. However, India flexed its muscle by imposing economic blockade to Nepal in 1989 AD in the pretext of the expiration of trade and transit treaty between Nepal and India. This incident further demonstrated the reinforcement of the 1950 Treaty by India.

Following the 1990 people’s uprising, King Birendra announced a multiparty democracy with constitutional monarchy in Nepal. After the establishment of multiparty democracy, the nation fell into several problems including political instability, Maoist’s war, lack of law and order, increasing unemployment, degradation of natural resource base, congestion of cities, economic problems, the crisis of the Tanakpur project, the mysterious car accident and the death of Madan Bhandari, the UML’s general secretary, and increased foreign activities threatening the national independence and sovereignty.

How fragile Nepal’s independence and sovereignty is can be judged from the statement of B.P. Koirala, who returned to Nepal from India in 1977 AD. He mentioned that ‘hamro desh aja sankat ma chha. Yeta kehi barsha dekhi yo sankat charkadai gayeko kura sabaile mahasus garekai ho’ Yes tathyalai arule pani swikar gareka chhan. Maharajdhiraj lagayat sabaile bakhatbakhatma rastriya awastitwamathi pareko khatara ko charcha gareka chhan. Yo ghambhir bastabikatalai bujher hami swadesh pharkeka chhau. Maile awabsar payeko khanda ma maharajdhiraj samachha pani anfulai lageka kura rakhne chhu. Rastralai bachaune jimwebari sabaiko ho.’

The Royal Palace Massacre that occurred in June 1, 2001 AD, was an inhumane, and an unthinkable tragedy of the Nepalese royalties. King Birendra and his family members as well as many others who were present at the family gathering in the Palace were killed. Reportedly, King Birendra knew how much risk there was in his life. He was informed from a diplomatic source that his life was in danger before the palace massacre.

King Gyanendra and CA’s Declaration:

King Gyanendra ascended to the throne in 2001 AD.  In his proclamation, King Gyanendra said ‘...deshma utpanna bhayeka yi ashya shok ka ghadi ma hami sabai Nepaliharu marmahat bhayeka chhaun. Hamro mulukmathi yek pachhi arko gari aai pareka dukhha daiparisthiti harulai hami sabai Nepalile shanhadai dhairya purbak aafno kartbya ra daitwo lai bahan garnu parne bela aayeko chha.  Nepalko itihas ma aai pareko yes aaklapaniya aabastha ko anuchit phaida leyi hamro rastriya ekta, sowtantrata, ra rastriyatalai samet kamjor parna sakne pryas huna sakne bhayekale hami sabai Nepali sachet hundai ekjut hunu pareko chha. Kastai bipatti aai parda pani nahadbadai samana garna ek hune Nepali ko parampara kayamai rakhnu aajako aabaskata bhayeko chha.‘

While Nepal had undergone through the Maoist war for the past 10 years, the immediate task for King Gyanendra was establishing law and order in the nation and restoring peace. As the political complexity worsened, King Gyanendra dismissed the parliament that was elected in 1999, and supported Sher Bahadur Deuba as the Prime Minister in May 2002.  He dismissed the Deuba government as well on October 4, 2002. The nation continued going through an extremely fluid political situation for the next 3 years. On February 1, 2005, King Gyanendra dismissed the Deuba government, for the second time, for failing to conduct parliamentary elections. He took the nation under his direct rule. Widespread protest against the King’s direct rule continued both in domestic as well as in international arenas. In April 2006, Jana Andolan II started, and eventually the King reinstated the 1999 parliament through a televised national address on April 24, 2006. On May 18, 2006, the reinstated parliamentary government severely stripped the King’s power and, to the surprise of most Nepalese citizens, Nepal was declared a secular state. Through the amendments of interim constitution, again to the surprise of most Nepalese, the SPA and the Maoists declared Nepal a federal nation. After completing the CA election on April 10, 2008, the parliament voted against the Monarchy and declared Nepal a republican state on May 28, 2008.  On June 11, 2008, King Gyanendra briefed the press and stated that he accepted the CA’s decision. He declared that he had no property outside Nepal, asserted that he loved Nepal and Nepalese people, and did not want to leave Nepal. He left the Narayanhiti palace for his temporary residence in Nagarjun palace. It is noteworthy to mention here that the RPP-N had recently submitted 2.35 million signatures to the CA demanding a referendum for the fate of the 240-year old monarchy and Hindu state.

Nepalese People’s Concern:

Despite all these political developments, the Nepalese are seriously worried with respect to various issues and concerns. These issues and concerns can be listed as followings:

1. The declaration of republican state, secularism, and federalism by the reinstated parliament and the CA without bringing these vital issues of national importance in discussions and debate to the general public,
2. Deteriorating law and order conditions,
3. Vanishing national identity,
4. Worsening economic conditions, and food shortage,
5. Increasingly irresponsible and unpatriotic leadership,
6. Rising ethnic, linguistic, racial, and regional conflicts,
7. Excessive nepotism and misuse of national resources,
8. Luxurious living styles and corrupt mentality of the party leaders,
9. Lack of leadership qualities such as trustworthiness, honesty, loyalty to the public, calmness, intelligence, patriotism, and vision among the political leaders, and
10. Eroding national integrity, independence, and sovereignty.

Foreign intervention:

The issue of regular foreign interventions in Nepal’s internal affairs is evident. However, a few examples here may further add to this issue.  After his coronation, according to available literature in an interview with Newsweek magazine, King Birendra stated that the basic problems of Nepal ‘‘are development and preservation of our identity as a nation.’ How much foreign pressure is involved in the governance of Nepal can simply be gauged by the statements of various leaders at different times.  Ex-Prime Minister Mr. Pushpa Kamal Dahal resigned from his post citing the presence of tremendous and unjust foreign pressures in the governance of Nepal. Even now, the Maoists are saying that the current government is a puppet of foreign powers. It is a well-established fact that when a nation is  plunged  into ethnic, political, and religious conflicts, and is in the grip of foreign powers, sooner or later, it will eventually succumb to a civil war and then into national disintegration.  Unfortunately, Nepal is exactly passing through this phase. Therefore, it is urgent for Nepal to solidify its national integrity, and preserve its national independence and sovereignty without any further delay.

National Identity, Nationalism, and Future Political Discourse:

Considering the geopolitical situation of the nation, we should expect continuous foreign pressures, often challenging our national identity and integrity. In addition, due to globalization, global climate change, and an international emphasis on regional programs and policies for resource development and utilization, the foreign pressures in Nepal’s governance will further increase. Nepal must build its capacity to tackle these pressures effectively.

Historically, Nepal had gone through the cycle of national unification, disintegration, and then re-unification. There is a real danger of national disintegration if the current socio-economic and the political situations are not handled wisely and correctly.  It is extremely important for Nepal to develop a political system that restricts or discourages foreign intervention in the domestic affairs of the nation.  The new political system must be able to preserve and to develop national identity. The time has come for every Nepalese and friends of Nepal to rise above their difference on politics, ideologies, ethnicities, cultures, languages, religions, genders, races, etc., and develop a robust and genuine political system that preserves and develops Nepal’s national identity, and ensures the national integrity, independence, sovereignty, prosperity, and peace.

Source: Devi Prasad Sharma: Aadhunik Nepalko Itihas; Surya Thapa: Nepalma Rajtantra ra dalharu bichko sangharsa; Siddhi B. Ranjitkar: Nepal-India Treaties; and Several Internet Sites.

(This article is an excerpt of the presentation made by the author as a featured speaker to the Lafayette Chapter of the Phi Beta Delta International Honor Society at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, Louisiana, U.S.A., on October 13, 2009 which was later published by the Telegraph Weekly, Kathmandu, Nepal in the same year)